BIO 461 Principles of Physiology

Cover

Module 1.0. Homeostasis, Membranes, Electrophysiology and ANS

1.1. Homeostasis

1.1.1. Homeostasis Defined

1.1.2. Homeostatic Control Systems

1.1.3. Feedback Response Loop

1.2. Cell Transport; Water & Solutes

1.2.1. Fluid Compartments

1.2.2. Osmosis

1.2.3. Diffusion of Solutes

1.2.4. Active Transport

1.2.5. Bulk Transport

1.3. Electrophysiology

1.3.1. Ions and Cell Membranes

1.3.2. Membrane Potentials

1.3.3. Graded Potential

1.3.4. Action Potentials

1.3.5. Refractory Periods

1.3.6. Propagation of an Action Potential

1.4. The Synapse

1.5. The Autonomic Nervous System

1.5.1. Organization of the Nervous System

1.5.2. Structural Organization of the ANS

1.5.3. The SNS and the PNS

1.5.4. The Enteric Nervous System

1.5.5. Physiology of the ANS

1.5.6. Neurotransmitters of the ANS

1.5.7. Receptors of the ANS

1.5.8. Actions of the Autonomic Nervous System

Module 2.0. Skeletal Muscle and Special Senses

2.1. Structural Organization of Skeletal Muscle

2.2.1. Neuromuscular Junction, Excitation-Contraction Coupling

2.2.2. Muscle Contractures and Cramps

2.3. Whole Muscle Contraction, Fiber Type, Fatigue and Muscle Pharmacology

2.3.1. Motor Units

2.3.2. Factors that Influence the Force of Contraction

2.3.3. Energy Source for Muscle Contraction

2.3.4. Skeletal Muscle Fiber Types

2.3.5. Fatigue

2.3.6. Muscle Pharmacology

2.4. Smooth Muscle

2.4.1. Smooth Muscle Contraction

2.5. Control of Body Movement

2.5.1. Voluntary Control of Muscle

2.5.2. Reflexes

2.6. Taste and Smell

2.6.1. Taste

2.6.2. The Sense of Smell

2.7. Vision

2.7.1. Structure of the Eye

2.7.2. Focusing Light on the Retina

2.7.3. Converting Light to Action Potentials

2.7.4. The Retina

2.7.5. Phototransduction

2.7.6. Receptive Fields

2.8. Hearing and Equilibrium

2.8.1. The Nature of Sound

2.8.2. The Hearing Apparatus

2.8.3. Sound Vibrations to Action Potentials

2.8.4. The Sense of Balance and Equilibrium

Module 3.0. Cardiovascular System

3.1. Structure of the Heart

3.1.1. Chambers and Circulation

3.2. Cardiac Cell Action Potentials

3.2.1. Action Potentials in Cardiac Muscle Cells

3.2.2. Action Potentials in Cardiac Autorhythmic cells

3.2.3. Cellular Mechanisms of Inotropy and Chronotropy

3.3. Electrophysiology of Heart Muscle

3.3.1. Heart Conduction System

3.3.2. Electrocardiogram (ECG)

3.3.3. Abnormal ECG - Current of Injury

3.4. The Cardiac Cycle

3.4.1. Cardiac cycle

3.4.2. Cardiac Measurements and Pressure Volume Loops

3.5. Blood vessels and Blood Pressure

3.5.1. Arteries and Veins

3.5.2. Capillaries

3.5.3. Blood Pressure Regulation and Shock

3.5.4. Capillary Exchange

3.5.5. Myogenic and Paracrine Regulation of Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation

3.6. Blood

3.6.1. Composition of Blood

3.6.2. Hematopoeisis

3.6.3. Breaking Down Red Blood Cells

3.6.4. Hemostasis

Module 4.0. Urinary and Respiratory Systems

4.1. Function and Structure of the Kidney

4.1.1. Urinary System Function

4.1.2. Functional Anatomy of the Urinary System

4.1.3. The Nephron: Functional Unit of the Kidney

4.1.4. The Renal Corpuscle: Bowman's Capsule

4.2. Physiology of Urine Production

4.2.1. Filtration

4.2.2. Renal Clearance

4.2.3. Tubular Reabsorption

4.2.4. Urine Concentration and Dilution

4.2.5. Hormonal Regulation of Urine Production

4.3. Acid/Base Balance

4.3.1. Buffers

4.3.2. Acid/Base Disturbances

4.4. The Respiratory System

4.4.1. Respiratory System Structure and Function

4.4.2. Respiratory Membrane

4.4.3. Respiratory pressures and Inspriation/Expiration

4.4.4. Alveoli and Surfactant

4.4.5. Pneumothorax

4.4.6. Pressure-Volume Loops and the Work of Breathing

4.5. Gas Exchange and Transport

4.5.1. Gas Laws

4.5.2. Partial Pressure Gradients in the Lung

4.5.3. Alveolar Gas Equation

4.5.4. Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood

4.5.5. Alveolar Ventilation

4.5.6. Ventilation/Perfusion Ratio

4.6. Chronic Bronchitis and Emphysema

4.6.1. Respiratory Control by the Medulla Oblongata

4.6.2. Chemicals that Regulate Ventilation

Module 5.0. Digestive, Endocrine and Reproductive Systems

5.1. Functional Anatomy of the Digestive System

5.1.1. Layers of the Digestive Tract

5.1.2. Enteric Nervous System

5.1.3. Organs of the Digestive System

5.3. Regulation of Digestive Secretions

5.4. Endocrine System

5.4.1. Overview of the Endocrine System

5.4.2. Hormone Receptors

5.4.3. Hormones of the Body

5.4.4. Other Hormones: Melatonin and Pheromones

5.5. The Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

5.5.1. Structure and Function of the Hypothalamus and Pituitary Gland

5.5.2. The Posterior Pituitary

5.5.3. The Anterior Pituitary

5.5.4. Growth Hormone

5.5.5. Prolactin

5.5.6. Thyroid Hormones

5.5.7. Adrenal Hormones

5.6. Pancreas

5.6.1. Insulin and Glucagon

5.6.2. Diabetes Mellitus

5.7. Reproductive System Anatomy

5.7.1. Female Reproductive Anatomy

5.7.2. Male Reproductive Anatomy

5.7.3. Sexual Development at Puberty

5.7.4. Male Reproductive Endocrine Axis

5.7.5. Spermatogenesis

5.7.6. Female Reproductive System: Oogenesis

5.7.7. Ovulation and Fertilization

5.7.8. The Ovarian Cycle

5.7.9. The Uterine Cycle

5.7.10. Pregnancy

Appendix A. Gender

Appendix B. The Placebo Effect

B.2.1. The Placebo Effect

B.2.2. Examples of the Placebo Effect

B.2.3. How do Placebos Work?

B.2.4. Are Placebos Ethical?

B.2.5. How do we validate actual effectiveness of placebos

B.2.6. Tips for evaluating scientific evidence

B.2.7. What about Faith Healings

test chapter

1.5.9

Table of Actions for the SNS and PNS and Some Common Drugs

Effector Organ	Sympathetic Effects (receptor)	Parasympathetic Effects (receptor)
Eye (iris)	Contraction of dilator pupillae muscles - mydriasis(α₁)	Contraction of sphincter pupillae muscles – miosis(M)
Eye (ciliary muscle)	Relaxation(β₂) for distant vision	Contraction(M) for accommodation of lens (near vision) and increase aqueous humor outflow into canal of Schlemm
Eye (ciliary body epithelium)	Increased aqueous humor production(β₁)	---
Heart	Increased heart rate, increased force of contraction and increased conduction rate (β₁)	Decreased heart and conduction rate(M), decreased atrial contractility(M)
Arterioles(skin, abdominal viscera, kidney)	Strong vasoconstriction(α₁)	---
Arterioles(skeletal muscle)	Weak vasoconstriction(α₁) Vasodilation (β₂)	---
Vessels(heart)	Vasoconstriction(α₁), Vasodilation(β₂)	---
Lungs	Dilates Bronchioles(β₂)	Constricts bronchioles(M)
Uterus, pregnant	Constriction(α₁), relaxation(β₂)	Contraction(M)
Gastrointestinal tract wall	Decreased tone(α₁,α_2,β₂)	Increased tone(M)
Gastrointestinal tract sphincter	Contraction(α₁)	Relaxation(M)
Gatrointestinal tract secretion	---	Increased(M)
Kidney	Increased renin release(β₁)	---
Bladder wall (detrusor muscle)	Relaxation(β₂)	Contraction(M)
Internal urinary sphincter	Contraction(α₁)	Relaxation(M)
Pancreas	Decreased insulin secretion(α₂), decreased exocrine secretion(α)	Increased insulin secretion(M), increased exocrine secretion(M)
Fat cells	Lipolysis(β₃)	---
Liver	Glycogenolysis (α₁,β₂), Gluconeogenesis(α₁,β₂)	Glucose uptake (M3?)
Piloerector muscles of skin	Contraction(α₁)	---
Salivary gland	Constriction of vessels & small production of thick saliva(α₁)	Dilation of vessels & large production of thin saliva(M)
Sweat Gland	Generalized sweating (M); Localized sweating (stress) palms & soles of feet (α₁₎	---
Adrenal medullae	Increased secretion of EPI or NE	---

Drug Name	Receptor and antagonist/agonist	Indication(use)
Phenylephrine	α₁ agonist	Mydriatic
Atropine	Muscarinic antagonist	Mydriatic/emergency medicine to increase heart rate
Pilocarpine	Muscarinic agonist	Glaucoma
Betaxolol	Beta antagonist	Glaucoma
Prazosin	α₁ antagonist	High blood pressure, Raynaud's disease
Terazosin	α₁ antagonist	High blood pressure, hyperhidrosis
Atenolol	b₁antagonist	High blood pressure
Ipratropium (Atrovent)	Muscarinic antagonist	Asthma/COPD
Albuterol	β₂agonist	Asthma/COPD
Bethanechol	Muscarinic agonist	Postoperative ileus

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