Major Concept Summary: Classical/Operant Conditioning; Learned Helplessness; Learned Optimism

ED 304: Ed Psych and Human Development

Author: Tegan Ross

Verified by: (Autumn Montgomery, 4 Feb), (Chelsey Berryhill, 14 July)

Disclosure: ChatGPT3 was used in the creation of this resource.

Conditioning

Behaviorism is a psychological theory that emphasizes the role of observable behavior in understanding and explaining human and animal behavior. This theory, which emerged in the early 20th century, is based on the idea that behavior can be studied and analyzed objectively, without reference to internal mental states or processes. Behaviorists argue that scientific methods should be used to study behavior and that theories and hypotheses should be testable through observation and experimentation. Furthermore, they believe that behavior is shaped by the environment, through processes such as classical and operant (sometimes called instrumental) conditioning, and that behavior can be modified through manipulation of the environment. Behaviorism has had a significant impact on the field of psychology, education, and other fields, and its principles continue to inform research and practice today.

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is modified by the consequences that follow it. It was first described by B.F. Skinner in the 1930s. The basic principle of operant conditioning is that a behavior is more likely to be repeated if it is followed by a reinforcing consequence, such as a reward, and less likely to be repeated if it is followed by a punishing consequence, such as a reprimand.

Skinner also discovered through one of his experiments that reinforcement was not always necessary following every display of the desired behavior. From this discovery came the understanding of schedules of reinforcement. Schedules of reinforcement refer to the timing and frequency of reinforcement (rewards or punishments) given in response to a specific behavior. There are four main schedules of reinforcement:

1. Continuous reinforcement: reinforcement is given every time the behavior is exhibited.
2. Intermittent reinforcement: reinforcement is given only some of the time the behavior is exhibited. This can include:

• Fixed ratio schedule: reinforcement is given after a specific number of responses (e.g. every 5th time the behavior is exhibited).
• Variable ratio schedule: reinforcement is given after an unpredictable number of responses (e.g. a slot machine).
• Fixed interval schedule: reinforcement is given after a specific amount of time (e.g. every day at 5 pm).
• Variable interval schedule: reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount of time (e.g. pop quizzes).

3. Partial reinforcement: reinforcement is given for some behaviors but not for others.
4. Extinction: no reinforcement is given for a behavior, leading to a decrease in the likelihood of the behavior being exhibited in the future.

The type of schedule used can have a big impact on the behavior being learned and how quickly it is learned.

Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a type of learning that happens unconsciously in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally elicits the response. The best-known example of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov's experiment in which he conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell by pairing the sound with the presentation of food. The neutral stimulus (bell) comes to elicit the same response as the naturally occurring stimulus (food).

Similarities between Operant and Classical Conditioning

Both operant and classical conditioning involve the learning of associations between stimuli and responses. Each type of conditioning can be used to explain the development of phobias, habits, and other learned behaviors. They also share the idea that the environment plays a crucial role in shaping behavior, through the manipulation of stimuli and consequences. Both theories also suggest that the processes of learning are not limited to animals or humans, but are present in all living organisms.

Differences between Operant and Classical Conditioning

Operant and classical conditioning are different in several ways. One key difference is that operant conditioning involves the modification of voluntary behavior, while classical conditioning involves the learning of involuntary responses. Additionally, in operant conditioning, the reinforcement or punishment is delivered as a consequence of the behavior, while in classical conditioning, the reinforcement or punishment is delivered simultaneously with the neutral stimulus.

Another difference between operant and classical conditioning is the role of attention. In operant conditioning, the organism pays attention to the consequence of its behavior, whereas in classical conditioning the organism does not pay attention to the consequence, it just learns the association between two stimuli.

In summary, operant conditioning is a type of learning in which behavior is modified by the consequences that follow it and classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally elicits the response. Both operant and classical conditioning play a crucial role in shaping our behavior and understanding of the world.

Learned Helplessness

Learned helplessness is a phenomenon in which an individual becomes less motivated to engage in goal-directed behavior because of previous experiences with uncontrollable or inescapable events. It was first described by Martin Seligman in the 1960s when he found that dogs that were exposed to uncontrollable electric shocks later showed less effort to escape shocks in a new situation.

The concept of learned helplessness has been applied to a wide range of situations, including clinical disorders such as depression, and in explaining why some individuals may fail to take action in the face of adversity. The theory is that when individuals experience events that are uncontrollable or inescapable, they learn that their actions have no effect on the outcome, and as a result, they become less likely to engage in goal-directed behavior. Additionally, learned helplessness can lead to a negative cognitive bias in which an individual will assume that future events are also uncontrollable or inescapable. This can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where an individual's expectation of failure leads to actual failure.

The phenomenon of learned helplessness can be observed in both animals and humans and has been used to explain a wide range of behaviors such as depression, addiction, and even domestic violence. It is important to note that learned helplessness can be reversed through the demonstration of controllability or the provision of an adequate coping strategy.

Learned Optimism

In contrast to learned helplessness, learned optimism is a psychological theory that suggests that individuals can learn to think optimistically and thus improve their mental health and well-being. It was also developed by Martin Seligman and, according to him, learned optimism is developed through the process of attributing the cause of negative events in one's life to uncontrollable events that we can learn from. He argues that people who make internal, stable, and global attributions for negative events are more likely to develop learned optimism than those who make external, unstable, and specific attributions. This theory can be used to improve mental health by teaching people to make more optimistic attributions to negative events, which can increase resilience and reduce the risk of depression.

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