Vocabulary List

• Theoretical: Relating to ideas, concepts, or principles rather than practical application.
  
• Implications: Consequences or effects of a particular action, decision, or situation.
  
• Policymakers: Individuals or groups responsible for creating, implementing, or influencing government policies and regulations.
  
• Descriptor: A word or phrase used to describe or identify something.
  
• Binary: Involving or consisting of two parts or options. In public health, binary variables are those that have only two possible values, such as yes or no, present or absent, or male or female.
  
• Credibility: The quality of being believable, reliable, or trustworthy. 

5.1 Writing the Discussion Section

5.1.1 Discussion

(Price et al., 2017)

The discussion is the last major section of the research report. Discussions may include the following elements:

• Summary of the research
• Theoretical implications
• Practical implications
• Limitations
• Suggestions for future research

The discussion typically begins with a summary of the study and a clear answer to the research question: 

• Repeat the results section in simpler terms without referring to statistics.
• Be sure to summarize all of your results.
• Interpret what these findings mean beyond being correlated.
  • This is where you can make claims about what can be inferred from the results (“This suggests that…”).
• State whether or not your hypothesis was supported.
  • Do not use the word proved.

You will also include four other sections in the discussion:

Discussion

(Price et al., 2015)

The discussion is the last major section of the research report. Discussions usually consist of some combination of the following elements:

• Summary of the research
• Practical implications
• Limitations
• Suggestions for future research

The discussion typically begins with a summary of the study that provides a clear answer to the research question. In a short report with a single study, this might require no more than a sentence. In a longer report with multiple studies, it might require a paragraph or even two. The summary is often followed by a discussion of the theoretical implications of the research. Do the results provide support for any existing theories? If not, how can they be explained? Although you do not have to provide a definitive explanation or detailed theory for your results, you at least need to outline one or more possible explanations. In applied research—and often in basic research—there is also some discussion of the practical implications of the research. How can the results be used, and by whom, to accomplish some real-world goal?

The theoretical and practical implications are often followed by a discussion of the study’s limitations. Perhaps there are problems with its internal or external validity. Perhaps the manipulation was not very effective or the measures not very reliable. Perhaps there is some evidence that participants did not fully understand their task or that they were suspicious of the intent of the researchers. Now is the time to discuss these issues and how they might have affected the results. But do not overdo it. All studies have limitations, and most readers will understand that a different sample or different measures might have produced different results. Unless there is good reason to think they would have, however, there is no reason to mention these routine issues. Instead, pick two or three limitations that seem like they could have influenced the results, explain how they could have influenced the results, and suggest ways to deal with them.

Most discussions end with some suggestions for future research. If the study did not satisfactorily answer the original research question, what will it take to do so? What new research questions has the study raised? This part of the discussion, however, is not just a list of new questions. It is a discussion of two or three of the most important unresolved issues. This means identifying and clarifying each question, suggesting some alternative answers, and even suggesting ways they could be studied.

Some researchers are quite good at ending their articles with a sweeping or thought-provoking conclusion. However, it is often best simply to end when you have made your final point (although you should avoid ending on a limitation).

5.1.2 Common Discussion Phrases

(Brigham Young University-Idaho, ChatGPT 4, 2024)

The following are samples of phrases often used in discussion sections:

5.1.3 Bias

(The University of Arizona Global Campus, 2023)

In academic writing, it is important to avoid using language that can be seen as biased. Bias happens when writers choose language that is either not specific or not sensitive to labels. This overview can help academic writers understand how to avoid bias. 

1. Use Third-Person Point of View
   • When writers use first person plural pronouns like we, us, and our, these words assume that the reader has the same experience or viewpoint as the writer. As this is not always the case, it is better to use third person pronouns.
   • Example of bias: We find that these laws interfere with control in the classroom.
   • Correct revision: Teachers find that these laws interfere with control in the classroom.
2. Choose Words Carefully When Making Comparisons
   • A writer might want to compare two things in writing. However, the words used to compare groups, people, companies, or ideas can create a bias if the words reveal the writer’s personal feelings. Words like bad present the writer’s feelings about the topic. Similarly, using a word like normal to describe something suggests that other things are abnormal, which is a biased opinion. 
   • Example of bias: Waxler Corporation, which is better than Anderson Inc., shares profits with employees. 
   • Correct revision: Waxler Corporation shares profits with its employees, which is a benefit not present in Anderson Inc.
3. Be Specific When Writing About People
   
   • Often, academic writing requires writers to describe people. When writing about people, it is important to be as specific as possible. For example, refer to people by their specific age (or age range) vs. using a term like elderly or senior. The same is true when describing people’s cultures and ethnicities. The standard is to be as specific as possible.
     
   • Example of bias: After using the medicine, Asian children showed a 25% decrease in disease.
     
   • Correct revision: After using the medicine, Filipino children showed a 25% decrease in disease.
     
4. Use People-First Language
   
   • Sometimes writers refer to people using adjectives instead of nouns. For example, someone might write "the disabled person" which uses the word disabled to describe the person. This is problematic because it reduces the person to that single trait. People should be referred to first, and then the descriptor should come after as part of a complete noun phrase. Instead of "disabled person," writers should use "the person with a disability." The tip is to remember to always name the person first.
     
   • Example of bias: The special education student scored 10 points higher.
     
   • Correct revision: The student in a special education program scored 10 points higher.
     
5. Use Gender-Neutral Phrases
   
   • There are many common phrases and words that use the word man. For example, mankind, manpower, and man a project. Instead of these words, try to use alternative language. For example, people, workforce, and staff a project.
     
   • Example of bias: The chairman disagreed.
     
   • Correct revision: The board member disagreed.
     
6. Use Inclusive or Preferred Personal Pronouns
   
   • The use of personal pronouns other than he and she is a currently evolving conversation in the linguistic community, among other communities. When known, use a person's preferred personal pronoun of he, she, they, ze, or another preferred personal pronoun. Using inclusive personal pronouns such as they/their, ze/hir, or ze/zir can help identify a person without assuming a gender. Rather than assume a person's gender, you can use an inclusive personal pronoun instead of he/his or she/her, which assume binary gender identification only. While the pronouns they/their have historically been plural only, it is grammatically acceptable to use them as singular pronouns. 
     
   • Example of bias: The student was encouraged to submit her assignment electronically.
     
   • Correct revision: The student was encouraged to submit their assignment electronically. The student was encouraged to submit hir assignment. The student was encouraged to submit zir assignment.
     
7. Check for Gender Assumptions
   
   • Writers often use pronouns, like he or she, to avoid referring to people by name over and over in writing. However, sometimes a writer may refer to unnamed people or groups of people using these pronouns. When this is the case, academic writers have to ensure they are not presenting a bias by assuming the gender of people. For example, when writing about teachers, a writer may find him or herself referring to a teacher as she without knowing the gender of the teacher. To avoid this, either vary the gender used to refer to people or avoid gendered pronouns altogether.
     
   • Example of bias: In her classroom, the teacher must have a management plan.
     
   • Correct revision: In the classroom, the teacher must have a management plan.

NOTE: All content is licensed CC-BY-NC unless otherwise noted. This courseware includes resources from multiple individuals and organizations. See the “References” section at the bottom of each page for copyright and licensing information specific to the material on that page. If you believe that this courseware violates your copyright, please contact us.

References

OpenAI. (2024). ChatGPT (version 4) [Large language model]. https://chat.openai.com

            License: CC-BY-NC

Price, P. C., Jhangiani, R., & Chiang, I.-C. A. (2015). Research Methods in Psychology—2nd Canadian Edition (2nd ed.). BC Campus. https://opentextbc.ca/researchmethods/chapter/writing-a-research-report-in-american-psychological-association-apa-style/

            License: CC-BY-NC-SA

Price, P. C., Jhangiani, R., Chiang, I.-C. A., Leighton, D. C., & Cuttler, C. (2017). Research Methods in Psychology. Pressbooks. https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/11-2-writing-a-research-report-in-american-psychological-association-apa-style/

            License: CC-BY-NC-SA

The University of Arizona Global Campus. (2023). Avoiding Bias. The University of Arizona Global Campus Writing Center. https://writingcenter.uagc.edu/avoiding-bias

            License: CC-BY